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Ottawa dialect

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the English language dialect, see <a href="Ottawa_Valley_English" title="Ottawa Valley English">Ottawa Valley English</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Ottawa</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Nishnaabemwin, Daawaamwin</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, <a href="Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">60,000 <a href="Odawa" title="Odawa">Odawa</a><a href="#cite_note-e25-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">5,108 US: 4,888<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Canada: 220<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a>

<a href="Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a>-<a href="Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Ottawa</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/otw" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:otw">otw</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/otta1242">otta1242</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/4938">Ottawa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=62-ADA-dd">(Odawa) 62-ADA-dd (Odawa)</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;">Ottawa population areas in Ontario, Michigan and Oklahoma. Reserves/Reservations and communities shown in red.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center">Ottawa is classified as Severely Endangered by the <a href="UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="Atlas_of_the_World's_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a>.</div></div></td></tr><tr></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">

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<table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">adaawe "to trade" / "to buy and sell"</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Person</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Odawa" title="Odawa">Daawaa / Odaawaa</a>      <a href="Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a>      <a href="Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Nishnaabe</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Odawa" title="Odawa">Daawaak / Odaawaag</a>      <a href="Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibweg</a>      <a href="Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Nishnaabeg</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">      <a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwemowin</a>      <a href="Anishinaabemowin" class="mw-redirect" title="Anishinaabemowin">Nishnaabemwin</a> <a href="Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Hand Talk</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data">Daawaaying / Odaawaaying Daawaaw’kii / Odaawaaw’kii      Ojibwewaki      <a href="List_of_traditional_territories_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" title="List of traditional territories of the Indigenous peoples of North America">Nishnaabew’kii</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

Ottawa or Odawa is a <a href="Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> of the <a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe language</a> spoken by the <a href="Odawa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Odawa people">Odawa people</a> in southern <a href="Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> in Canada, and northern <a href="Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a> in the United States. Descendants of migrant Ottawa speakers live in <a href="Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> and <a href="Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>. The first recorded meeting of Ottawa speakers and Europeans occurred in 1615 when a party of Ottawas encountered explorer <a href="Samuel_de_Champlain" title="Samuel de Champlain">Samuel de Champlain</a> on the north shore of <a href="Georgian_Bay" title="Georgian Bay">Georgian Bay</a>. Ottawa is written in an alphabetic system using <a href="Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin letters</a>, and is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin 'speaking the native language' or Daawaamwin 'speaking Ottawa'.

Ottawa is one of the Ojibwe dialects that has undergone the most <a href="Language_change" title="Language change">language change</a>, although it shares many features with other dialects. The most distinctive change is a pervasive pattern of vowel <a href="Syncope_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncope (phonetics)">syncope</a> that deletes short vowels in many words, resulting in significant changes in their <a href="Phonology" title="Phonology">pronunciation</a>. This and other innovations in pronunciation, in addition to changes in <a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">word structure</a> and <a href="Lexicon" title="Lexicon">vocabulary</a>, differentiate Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe.

Like other Ojibwe dialects, Ottawa grammar includes <a href="Grammatical_gender#Animate_and_inanimate" title="Grammatical gender">animate and inanimate</a> noun <a href="Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>, subclasses of <a href="Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> that are dependent upon gender, combinations of <a href="Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a> and <a href="Suffixes" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffixes">suffixes</a> that are connected with particular verb subclasses, and complex patterns of <a href="Word_formation" title="Word formation">word formation</a>. Ottawa distinguishes two types of <a href="Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">third person</a> in sentences: <a href="Grammatical_person#Additional_persons" title="Grammatical person">proximate</a>, indicating a <a href="Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> that is emphasized in the discourse, and <a href="Grammatical_person#Additional_persons" title="Grammatical person">obviative</a>, indicating a less prominent noun phrase. Ottawa has a relatively flexible word order compared with languages such as English.

Ottawa speakers are concerned that their language is <a href="Language_death" title="Language death">endangered</a> as the use of English increases and the number of fluent speakers declines. <a href="Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a> efforts include <a href="Second_language_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language learning">second language learning</a> in primary and secondary schools.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Ojibwe_dialects" title="Ojibwe dialects">Ojibwe dialects</a></div>

Ottawa is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin 'speaking the native language' (from Anishinaabe 'native person' + verb suffix -mo 'speak a language' + suffix -win '<a href="Nominalization" title="Nominalization">nominalizer</a>', with regular deletion of short vowels); the same term is applied to the <a href="Eastern_Ojibwa_language" title="Eastern Ojibwa language">Eastern Ojibwe</a> dialect.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The corresponding term in other dialects is Anishinaabemowin.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Daawaamwin (from Odaawaa 'Ottawa' + verb suffix -mo 'speak a language' + suffix -win 'nominalizer', with regular deletion of short vowels) 'speaking Ottawa' is also reported in some sources.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The name of the Canadian capital <a href="Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> is a <a href="Loanword" title="Loanword">loanword</a> that comes through <a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a> from odaawaa, the self-designation of the Ottawa people.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The earliest recorded form is Outaouan, in a French source from 1641.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

Ottawa is a dialect of the Ojibwe language, which is a member of the <a href="Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian language family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goddard_DVM-10">[10]</a> The varieties of Ojibwe form a <a href="Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>, a series of adjacent dialects spoken primarily in the area surrounding the <a href="Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> as well as in the Canadian provinces of <a href="Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, <a href="Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>, and <a href="Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>, with smaller outlying groups in <a href="North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>, <a href="Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, <a href="Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, and <a href="British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>. <a href="Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">Mutual intelligibility</a> is the linguistic criterion used to distinguish languages from dialects.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298-12">[12]</a> In straightforward cases, varieties of language that are mutually intelligible are classified as dialects, while varieties of speech that are not mutually intelligible are classified as separate languages.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Linguistic and social factors may result in inconsistencies in how the terms language and dialect are used.<a href="#cite_note-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298-299-14">[14]</a>

Languages spoken in a series of dialects occupying adjacent territory form a dialect continuum or language complex, with some of the dialects being mutually intelligible while others are not. Adjacent dialects typically have relatively high degrees of mutual intelligibility, but the degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably. In some cases, speakers of nonadjacent dialects may not understand each other's speech.<a href="#cite_note-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298-299-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

A survey conducted during the 1980s and 1990s found that the differences between Ottawa, the <a href="Anishinini_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anishinini language">Severn Ojibwe</a> dialect spoken in northwestern Ontario and northern Manitoba, and the <a href="Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a> dialect spoken in western <a href="Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> result in low levels of mutual intelligibility.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994-16">[16]</a> These three dialects "show many distinct features, which suggest periods of relative isolation from other varieties of Ojibwe."<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_pp._43–44-17">[17]</a> Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe is conventionally considered to be a single language with a series of adjacent dialects.<a href="#cite_note-RhodesTodd52-18">[18]</a> Taking account of the low mutual intelligibility of the most strongly differentiated dialects, an alternative view is that Ojibwe "could be said to consist of several languages",<a href="#cite_note-RhodesTodd52-18">[18]</a> forming a language complex.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2></div>

The Ottawa communities for which the most detailed linguistic information has been collected are in Ontario. Extensive research has been conducted with speakers from Walpole Island in southwestern Ontario near <a href="Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, and <a href="Wikwemikong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikwemikong">Wikwemikong</a> on <a href="Manitoulin_Island" title="Manitoulin Island">Manitoulin Island</a> in <a href="Lake_Huron" title="Lake Huron">Lake Huron</a>. South of Manitoulin Island on the <a href="Bruce_Peninsula" title="Bruce Peninsula">Bruce Peninsula</a> are <a href="Chippewas_of_Nawash_Unceded_First_Nation" title="Chippewas of Nawash Unceded First Nation">Cape Croker</a> and <a href="Saugeen_First_Nation" title="Saugeen First Nation">Saugeen</a>, for which less information is available.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The dialect affiliation of several communities east of Lake Huron remains uncertain. Although "the dialect spoken along the eastern shore of Georgian Bay" has been described as <a href="Eastern_Ojibwa_language" title="Eastern Ojibwa language">Eastern Ojibwe</a>, studies do not clearly delimit the boundary between Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

Other Canadian communities in the Ottawa-speaking area extend from <a href="Sault_Ste._Marie%2C_Ontario" title="Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario">Sault Ste. Marie</a>, Ontario along the north shore of Lake Huron: <a href="Garden_River_First_Nation" title="Garden River First Nation">Garden River</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="Thessalon%2C_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalon, Ontario">Thessalon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_24-24">[24]</a> Mississauga (Mississagi River 8 Reserve,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_21-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Serpent River,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_23-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Whitefish River,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_24-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="Mattagami_First_Nation" title="Mattagami First Nation">Mattagami</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_21-25">[25]</a> and <a href="Whitefish_Lake_First_Nation" title="Whitefish Lake First Nation">Whitefish Lake</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_24-24">[24]</a> In addition to Wikwemikong, Ottawa communities on Manitoulin Island are, west to east: <a href="Zhiibaahaasing_First_Nation" title="Zhiibaahaasing First Nation">Cockburn Island</a>,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Sheshegwaning,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_23-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <a href="M'Chigeeng_First_Nation" title="M'Chigeeng First Nation">West Bay</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_24-24">[24]</a> Sucker Creek,<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_24-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and Sheguiandah.<a href="#cite_note-Canada,_1980,_23-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Other Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario in addition to Walpole Island are: <a href="Aamjiwnaang_First_Nation" title="Aamjiwnaang First Nation">Sarnia</a>, <a href="Kettle_Point_44%2C_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Kettle Point 44, Ontario">Stoney and Kettle Point</a>, and <a href="Chippewas_of_the_Thames_First_Nation" title="Chippewas of the Thames First Nation">Caradoc (Chippewas of the Thames)</a>, near <a href="London%2C_Ontario" title="London, Ontario">London</a>, Ontario.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes_Todd_OJIB_Map-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

Communities in Michigan where Ottawa linguistic data has been collected include <a href="Peshawbestown%2C_Michigan" title="Peshawbestown, Michigan">Peshawbestown</a>, Harbor Springs, <a href="Grand_Rapids" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Rapids">Grand Rapids</a>, <a href="Mount_Pleasant%2C_Michigan" title="Mount Pleasant, Michigan">Mount Pleasant</a>, <a href="Bay_City%2C_Michigan" title="Bay City, Michigan">Bay City</a>, and <a href="Cross_Village" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross Village">Cross Village</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes_Todd_OJIB_Map-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._x–xi-36">[36]</a> The descendants of migrant Ottawas live in Kansas and Oklahoma;<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dawes,_Charles,_1982-38">[38]</a> available information indicates only three elderly speakers in Oklahoma as of 2006.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

Reliable data on the total number of Ottawa speakers is not available, in part because <a href="Canada_2006_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="Canada 2006 Census">Canadian census data</a> does not identify the Ottawa as a separate group.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> One report suggests a total of approximately 8,000 speakers of Ottawa in the northern United States and southern Ontario out of an estimated total population of 60,000.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> A field study conducted during the 1990s in Ottawa communities indicates that Ottawa is in decline, noting that "Today too few children are learning Nishnaabemwin as their first language, and in some communities where the language was traditionally spoken, the number of speakers is very small."<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Formal second-language classes attempt to reduce the impact of declining first-language acquisition of Ottawa.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001,_p._1-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_movements">Population movements</h3></div>

At the time of first contact with Europeans in the early 17th century, Ottawa speakers resided on Manitoulin Island, the Bruce Peninsula, and probably the north and east shores of Georgian Bay. The northern area of the <a href="Lower_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Peninsula">Lower Peninsula</a> of Michigan has also been a central area for Ottawa speakers since the arrival of Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Feest,_J._1978,_p._772-44">[44]</a>

Since the arrival of Europeans, the population movements of Ottawa speakers have been complex,<a href="#cite_note-Feest,_J._1978,_p._772-44">[44]</a> with extensive migrations and contact with other Ojibwe groups.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Many Ottawa speakers in southern Ontario are descended from speakers of the <a href="Southwestern_Ojibwe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwestern Ojibwe language">Southwestern Ojibwe</a> dialect (also known as "Chippewa") who moved into Ottawa-speaking areas during the mid-19th century. Ottawa today is sometimes referred to as Chippewa or Ojibwe by speakers in these areas.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._x–xi-36">[36]</a> As part of a series of population displacements during the same period, an estimated two thousand American <a href="Potawatomi_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Potawatomi (language)">Potawatomi</a> speakers from Wisconsin, Michigan and <a href="Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> moved into Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The non-Ottawa-speaking Ojibwes who moved to these areas <a href="Language_shift" title="Language shift">shifted</a> to speaking Ottawa, as did the Potawatomi migrants. As a result of the migrations, Ottawa came to include Potawatomi and Ojibwe loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

Two subdialects of Ottawa arise from these population movements and the subsequent language shift. The subdialects are associated with the ancestry of significant increments of the populations in particular communities and differences in the way the language is named in those locations.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes1985,4-48">[48]</a> On Manitoulin Island, where the population is predominantly of Ottawa origin, the language is called Ottawa, and has features that set it off from other communities that have significant populations of Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) and Potawatomi descent. In the latter communities, the language is called Chippewa but is still clearly Ottawa. Dialect features found in "Ottawa Ottawa" that distinguish it from "Chippewa Ottawa" include deletion of the sounds w and y between vowels, <a href="Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalization</a> of w before consonants,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> changes in vowel quality adjacent to w,<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._xxxix–xliii-50">[50]</a> and distinctive intonation.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes1985,4-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ottawa_phonology" title="Ottawa phonology">Ottawa phonology</a></div>

Ottawa has seventeen <a href="Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> and seven <a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">oral vowels</a>; there are also long <a href="Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal</a> vowels whose <a href="Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> status is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In this article, Ottawa words are written in the <a href="Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">modern orthography</a> described below, with phonetic transcriptions in brackets using the <a href="International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a> as needed.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>

The most prominent feature of Ottawa phonology is <a href="Ottawa_phonology#Vowel_syncope" title="Ottawa phonology">vowel syncope</a>, in which short vowels are deleted, or in certain circumstances reduced to schwa [<a href="Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>], when they appear in <a href="Metrical_phonology" title="Metrical phonology">metrically defined</a> weak syllables. Notable effects of syncope are:<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a>

<ol><li>Differences in pronunciation between Ottawa and other dialects of Ojibwe, resulting in a lower degree of mutual intelligibility.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></li>

<li>Creation of new consonant clusters that do not occur in other dialects, through deletion of short vowels between two consonants.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></li>

<li>Adjustments in the pronunciation of consonant sequences.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li>

<li>New forms of the person prefixes that occur on nouns and verbs.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._59-58">[58]</a></li>

<li>Variability in the pronunciation of words that contain vowels subject to syncope, as speakers frequently have more than one way of pronouncing them.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3></div>

The table of consonants uses symbols from the modern orthography with the corresponding symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) following where the two vary, or to draw attention to a particular property of the sound in question.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<caption>Ottawa consonant inventory

</caption>

</th>

<th><a href="Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/ <a href="Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a>/ <a href="Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<th><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">Lenis</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a> ⟨j⟩

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> ⟨h⟩

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">Fortis</a>

</th>

<td>pːʰ ⟨p⟩

</td>

<td>tːʰ ⟨t⟩

</td>

<td>tʃːʰ ⟨ch⟩

</td>

<td>kːʰ ⟨k⟩

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a>

</th>

<th>Lenis

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a> ⟨zh⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Fortis

</th>

</td>

<td>sː ⟨s⟩

</td>

<td>ʃː ⟨sh⟩

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> ⟨y⟩

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<li id="cite_note-loanwords-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loanwords_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loanwords_62-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loanwords_62-2">c</a> The sounds /f, r, l/ occur only in loanwords from English.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

The <a href="Plosive" title="Plosive">plosive</a>, <a href="Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative</a>, and <a href="Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate</a> consonants are divided into two sets, referred to as <a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis and lenis</a>. Fortis (or "strong") consonants are typically distinguished from lenis (or "weak") consonants by features such as greater duration or <a href="Gemination" title="Gemination">length</a>, are <a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiceless</a> where lenis consonants are typically <a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>, and may be <a href="Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> In Ottawa, each fortis consonant is matched to a corresponding lenis consonant with the same <a href="Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place of articulation</a> and <a href="Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a>. Ottawa fortis consonants are voiceless and phonetically long,<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985_pp-65">[64]</a> and are aspirated in most positions: [pːʰ], [tːʰ], [kːʰ], [tʃːʰ]. When following another consonant they are unaspirated or weakly articulated.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> The lenis consonants are typically voiced between vowels and word-initially before a vowel, but are <a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">devoiced</a> in word-final position. The lenis consonants are subject to other <a href="Ottawa_phonology#Secondary_consonant_clusters" title="Ottawa phonology">phonological processes</a> when adjacent to fortis consonants.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a>

<a href="Labialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialisation">Labialized</a> stop consonants [ɡʷ] and [kʷ], consisting of a consonant with noticeable lip <a href="Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounding</a>, occur in the speech of some speakers. Labialization is not normally indicated in writing, but a subscript dot is utilized in a widely used dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe to mark labialization: ɡ̣taaji 'he is afraid' and aaḳzi 'he is sick'.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3></div>

Ottawa has seven oral <a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>, four <a href="Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long</a> and three <a href="Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">short</a>. There are four long nasal vowels whose status as either phonemes or <a href="Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> (predictable variants) is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> The long vowels /iː, oː, aː/ are paired with the short vowels /i, o, a/,<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._xxxix–xliii-50">[50]</a> and are written with double symbols ⟨ii⟩, ⟨oo⟩, ⟨aa⟩ that correspond to the single symbols used for the short vowels ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨a⟩. The long vowel /eː/ does not have a corresponding short vowel, and is written with a single e.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> The phonological distinction between long and short vowels plays a significant role in Ottawa phonology, as only short vowels can be <a href="Ottawa_phonology#Metrical_feet_and_syllable_weight" title="Ottawa phonology">metrically weak</a> and undergo <a href="Ottawa_phonology#Vowel_syncope" title="Ottawa phonology">syncope</a>. Long vowels are always <a href="Ottawa_phonology#Metrical_feet_and_syllable_weight" title="Ottawa phonology">metrically strong</a> and never undergo deletion.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a>

The table below gives the orthographic symbol and the primary phonetic values for each vowel.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a>

<caption>Oral vowels

</caption>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a>

</th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Short</th>

<th>Short</th>

<th>Long

</th></tr>

<tr>

</th>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The long nasal vowels are iinh ([ĩː]), enh ([ẽː]), aanh ([ãː]), and oonh ([õː]). They most commonly occur in the final syllable of nouns with <a href="Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> suffixes or words with a diminutive connotation,<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> as well as in the suffix (y)aanh ([-(j)ãː]) 'first person (Conjunct) Animate Intransitive'.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_p._19-74">[73]</a> Orthographically the long vowel is followed by word-final ⟨nh⟩ to indicate that the vowel is nasal; while n is a common indicator of nasality in many languages such as French, the use of ⟨h⟩ is an orthographic convention and does not correspond to an independent sound.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine_NASAL_40-75">[74]</a> One analysis treats the long nasal vowels as <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> while another treats them as derived from sequences of long vowel followed by /n/ and underlying /h/; the latter sound is converted to [ʔ] or deleted.<a href="#cite_note-Piggott,_Glyne,_1980,_pp._110-11-77">[76]</a> A study of the Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) dialect spoken in Minnesota describes the status of the analogous vowels as unclear, noting that while the distribution of the long nasal vowels is restricted, there is a <a href="Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pair</a> distinguished only by the nasality of the vowel: giiwe [ɡiːweː] 'he goes home' and giiwenh [ɡiːwẽː] 'so the story goes'.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> Other discussions of Ottawa phonology and phonetics are silent on the issue.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine_NASAL_40-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a>

<caption>Long nasal vowels<a href="#cite_note-Valentine_NASAL_40-75">[74]</a>

</caption>

<th>Nasal Vowel

</th>

<th>Example

</th>

<th>English

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">iinh

</td>

<td>kiwenziinh</td>

<td>'old man'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>wesiinh</td>

<td>'(small) animal'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">enh

</td>

<td>mdimooyenh</td>

<td>'old woman'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nzhishenh</td>

<td>'my uncle'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>bnaajaanh</td>

<td>'nestling'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">oonh

</td>

<td>zhashkoonh</td>

<td>'muskrat'

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>boodoonh</td>

<td>'polliwog, tadpole'

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe grammar</a></div>

Ottawa shares the general grammatical characteristics of the other dialects of <a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a>. Word classes include <a href="Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a>, <a href="Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a>, <a href="Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">grammatical particles</a>, <a href="Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a>, <a href="Preverb" title="Preverb">preverbs</a>, and <a href="Prenoun" title="Prenoun">prenouns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a>

Ottawa <a href="Noun_class#Algonquian_languages" title="Noun class">grammatical gender</a> classifies nouns as either animate or inanimate.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> Transitive verbs encode the gender of the <a href="Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">grammatical object</a>, and <a href="Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verbs</a> encode the gender of the <a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">grammatical subject</a>, creating a set of four verb subclasses.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> The distinction between the two genders also affects verbs through <a href="Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a> patterns for number and gender.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> Similarly, <a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> pronouns agree in gender with the noun they refer to.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ottawa_morphology" title="Ottawa morphology">Ottawa morphology</a></div>

Ottawa has complex systems of both <a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> and <a href="Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivational</a> morphology. Inflectional morphology has a central role in Ottawa grammar. Noun inflection and verb inflection indicate grammatical information through prefixes and suffixes that are added to word stems.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a>

Notable grammatical characteristics marked with inflectional prefixes and suffixes include:

<ol><li>A distinction between <a href="Grammatical_person#Additional_persons" title="Grammatical person">obviative</a> and <a href="Grammatical_person#Additional_persons" title="Grammatical person">proximate</a> third person, marked on both verbs and nouns.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._623-87">[86]</a></li>

<li>Extensive marking on verbs of inflectional information concerning <a href="Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Number</a> (singular and plural).<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a></li>

<li><a href="Negation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Negation (linguistics)">Negation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a></li></ol>

Prefixes mark grammatical person on verbs, including first person, second person, and third person.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> Nouns use combinations of prefixes and suffixes to indicate <a href="Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possession</a>. Suffixes on nouns mark <a href="Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>,<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> <a href="Locative_case" title="Locative case">location</a>,<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> <a href="Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a>,<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> <a href="Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a>,<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> and other categories.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> Significant agreement patterns between nouns and verbs involve gender, <a href="Grammatical_number#Singular_versus_plural" title="Grammatical number">singular and plural</a> number, as well as obviation.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a>

Ottawa derivational morphology forms basic <a href="Word_stem" title="Word stem">word stems</a> with combinations of word <a href="Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">roots</a> (also called initials), and <a href="Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> referred to as medials and finals to create words to which inflectional prefixes and suffixes are added.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> Word stems are combined with other word stems to create <a href="Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compound</a> words.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a>

Innovations in Ottawa morphology contribute to differentiating Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe. These differences include: the reanalysis of person prefixes and word stems;<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._59-58">[58]</a> the loss of final /-n/ in certain inflectional suffixes;<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating doubt;<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> and a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating plurality on <a href="Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verbs</a> with grammatically inanimate subjects.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_p._430-105">[104]</a>

The most significant of the morphological innovations that characterize Ottawa is the restructuring of the three person prefixes that occur on both nouns and verbs. The prefixes carry grammatical information about grammatical person (first, second, or third). Syncope modifies the pronunciation of the prefixes by deleting the short vowel in each prefix.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a>

<caption>Personal prefixes added to consonant-initial stem

</caption>

<th width="125">English

</th>

<th width="125">Non-Syncopating Dialects

</th>

<th width="125">Ottawa

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>(a) first-person prefix</td>

<td>n-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>(b) second person prefix</td>

<td>g-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>(c) third-person</td>

<td>— (no form)

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

The third-person prefix /o-/, which occurs with both nouns and verbs, is completely eliminated in Ottawa.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> As a result, there is no grammatical marker to indicate third-person on inflected forms of nouns or verbs. For example, where other dialects have jiimaan 'a canoe' with no person prefix, and ojimaan 'his/her canoe' with prefix o-, Ottawa has jiimaan meaning either 'canoe' or 'his/her canoe' (with no prefix, because of syncope).<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> Apart from the simple deletion of vowels in the prefixes, Ottawa has created new variants for each prefix.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Restructuring of the person prefixes is discussed in detail in <a href="Ottawa_morphology" title="Ottawa morphology">Ottawa morphology</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3></div>

<a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a> refers to patterns for combining <a href="Word" title="Word">words</a> and <a href="Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a> to make <a href="Clause" title="Clause">clauses</a> and <a href="Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> Verbal and nominal inflectional morphology are central to Ottawa syntax, as they mark grammatical information on verbs and nouns to a greater extent than in English (which has few inflections, and relies mainly on word order).<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> Preferred <a href="Word_order" title="Word order">word orders</a> in a simple <a href="Transitivity_(grammatical_category)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitivity (grammatical category)">transitive</a> sentence are verb-initial, such as <a href="Verb%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–object–subject">verb–object–subject</a> (VOS) and <a href="Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">VSO</a>. While verb-final orders are avoided, all logically possible orders are attested.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> Ottawa word order displays considerably more freedom than is found in languages such as English, and word order frequently reflects <a href="Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse</a>-based distinctions such as <a href="Topic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Topic (linguistics)">topic</a> and <a href="Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">focus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a>

Verbs are marked for grammatical information in three distinct sets of inflectional paradigms, called <a href="Ojibwe_grammar#Verbs" title="Ojibwe grammar">Verb orders</a>. Each order corresponds generally to one of three main sentence types: the Independent order is used in <a href="Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">main clauses</a>, the Conjunct order in <a href="Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">subordinate clauses</a>, and the Imperative order in <a href="Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">commands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a>

Ottawa distinguishes <a href="Yes%E2%80%93no_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Yes–no question">yes–no questions</a>, which use a verb form in the Independent order, from content questions formed with the Ottawa equivalents of <a href="Interrogative_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative words">what, where, when, who</a> and others, which require verbs inflected in the Conjunct order.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a>

Ottawa distinguishes two types of grammatical <a href="Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">third person</a> in sentences, marked on both verbs and animate nouns. The <a href="Grammatical_person#Additional_persons" title="Grammatical person">proximate</a> form indicates a more salient noun phrase, and <a href="Grammatical_person#Additional_persons" title="Grammatical person">obviative</a> indicates a less prominent noun phrase. Selection and use of proximate or obviative forms is a distinctive aspect of Ottawa syntax that indicates the relative discourse prominence of noun phrases containing third persons; it does not have a direct analogue in English grammar.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._623-87">[86]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2></div>

Few vocabulary items are considered unique to Ottawa.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_p._430-105">[104]</a> The influx of speakers of other Ojibwe dialects into the Ottawa area has resulted in mixing of historically distinct dialects. Given that vocabulary spreads readily from one dialect to another, the presence of a particular vocabulary item in a given dialect is not a guarantee of the item's original source.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> Two groups of <a href="Function_word" title="Function word">function words</a> are characteristically Ottawa: the sets of demonstrative pronouns and interrogative adverbs are both distinctive relative to other dialects of Ojibwe. Although some of the vocabulary items in each set are found in other dialects, taken as a group each is uniquely Ottawa.<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demonstrative_pronouns">Demonstrative pronouns</h3></div>

Ottawa uses a set of <a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> pronouns that contains terms unique to Ottawa, while other words in the set are shared with other Ojibwe dialects. Taken as a group the Ottawa set is distinctive.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> The following chart shows the demonstrative pronouns for: (a) Wikwemikong, an Ottawa community; (b) Curve Lake, an Eastern Ojibwe community; and (c) Cape Croker, an Ottawa community that uses a mixed pronoun set. The terms maaba 'this (animate)', gonda 'these (animate)', and nonda 'these (inanimate)' are unique to Ottawa.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a>

<caption>Demonstrative pronouns

</caption>

<th width="100">English

</th>

<th width="100">Wikwemikong

</th>

<th width="100">Curve Lake

</th>

<th width="100">Cape Croker

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>this (inanimate)</td>

<td>maanda</td>

<td>maanda

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>that (inanimate)</td>

<td>iw

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>these (inanimate)</td>

<td>nonda</td>

<td>now

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>those (inanimate)</td>

<td>niw

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>this (animate)</td>

<td>maaba</td>

<td>maaba

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>that (animate)</td>

<td>aw

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>these (animate)</td>

<td>gonda</td>

<td>gow

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>those (animate)</td>

<td>giw

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interrogative_pronouns_and_adverbs">Interrogative pronouns and adverbs</h3></div>

Ottawa interrogative pronouns and adverbs frequently have the emphatic pronoun dash fused with them to form a single word. In this table the emphatic pronoun is written as -sh immediately following the main word.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_p._19-74">[73]</a>

<caption>Interrogative pronouns

</caption>

<th width="100">English

</th>

<th width="100">Ottawa

</th>

<th width="100">Eastern Ojibwe

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>which</td>

<td>aanii-sh, aanii</td>

<td>aaniin

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>where</td>

<td>aanpii-sh, aapii, aapii-sh</td>

<td>aandi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>wene-sh, wenen</td>

<td>wenen

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>aanii-sh, aanii</td>

<td>aaniin

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_vocabulary">Other vocabulary</h3></div>

A small number of vocabulary items are characteristically Ottawa.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> Although these items are robustly attested in Ottawa, they have also been reported in some other communities.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a>

<caption>Distinctive Ottawa vocabulary

</caption>

<th width="150">English

</th>

<th width="100">Ottawa Terms

</th>

<th width="150">Notes

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>maajaan</td>

<td>—

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>father, my</td>

<td>Also <a href="Border_Lakes_Ojibwe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Border Lakes Ojibwe language">Border Lakes Ojibwe</a>, Eastern Ojibwe, Saulteaux

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>mother, my</td>

<td>ngashi</td>

<td>—

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>pants</td>

<td>miiknod</td>

<td>Also Algonquin

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>zhaazhi</td>

<td>—

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>necessarily</td>

<td>aabdig</td>

<td>Also Eastern Ojibwe

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>be small (animate verb)</td>

<td>gaachiinyi</td>

<td>—

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Ojibwe_writing_systems" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe writing systems</a></div>

Written representation of Ojibwe dialects, including Ottawa, was introduced by European explorers, missionaries and traders who were speakers of English and French. They wrote Ottawa words and sentences using their own languages' letters and orthographic conventions, adapting them to the unfamiliar new language.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> Indigenous writing in Ottawa was also based upon English or French, but only occurred sporadically through the 19th and 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> Modern focus on literacy and use of written forms of the language has increased in the context of second-language learning, where mastery of written language is viewed as a component of the language-learning process.<a href="#cite_note-NicholsWhiteiii-129">[128]</a> Although there has never been a generally accepted standard written form of Ottawa, interest in standardization has increased with the publication of a widely used dictionary in 1985 and reference grammar in 2001, which provide models for spelling conventions.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001-21">[21]</a> A conference held in 1996 brought together speakers of all dialects of Ojibwe to review existing writing systems and make proposals for standardization.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_orthographic_practices">Early orthographic practices</h3></div>

19th-century missionary authors who wrote in Ottawa include <a href="Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> missionary <a href="Frederic_Baraga" title="Frederic Baraga">Frederic Baraga</a> and <a href="Anglican_Church_of_Canada" title="Anglican Church of Canada">Anglican</a> Frederick O'Meara (illustration, this section).<a href="#cite_note-OMeara54-122">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> Ottawa speaker Andrew Blackbird wrote a history of his people in English; an appended grammatical description of Ottawa and the Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) dialect also contains vocabulary lists, short phrases, and translations of the <a href="Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> and the <a href="Lord's_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blackbird,_Andrew_J.,_1887-134">[133]</a> Accurate transcriptions of Ottawa date from linguist Leonard Bloomfield's research with Ottawa speakers in the late 1930s and early 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958-135">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a>

A tradition of indigenous literacy in Ottawa arose in the 19th century, as speakers of Ottawa on Manitoulin Island became literate in their own language.<a href="#cite_note-Corbiere-137">[136]</a> Manitoulin Island Ottawas who were Catholic learned to write from French Catholic missionaries using a French-influenced orthography,<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> while <a href="Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> and Anglican converts used English-based orthographies.<a href="#cite_note-Corbiere58-139">[138]</a> Documents written in Ottawa by Ottawa speakers on Manitoulin Island between 1823 and 1910 include official letters and petitions, personal documents, official Indian band regulations, an official proclamation, and census statements prepared by individuals.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> Ottawa speakers from Manitoulin Island contributed articles to Anishinabe Enamiad ('the Praying Indian'), an Ojibwe newspaper started by <a href="Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> missionaries and published in <a href="Harbor_Springs%2C_Michigan" title="Harbor Springs, Michigan">Harbor Springs</a>, Michigan between 1896 and 1902.<a href="#cite_note-Corbiere-137">[136]</a>

It has been suggested that Ottawa speakers were among the groups that used the <a href="Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabary" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabary">Great Lakes Algonquian syllabary</a>, a syllabic writing system derived from a European-based alphabetic orthography,<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> but supporting evidence is weak.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_orthography">Modern orthography</h3></div>

Although there is no standard or official writing system for Ottawa, a widely accepted system is used in a recent dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe,<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985-130">[129]</a> a collection of texts,<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1998-143">[142]</a> and a descriptive grammar.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001-21">[21]</a> The same system is taught in programs for Ojibwe language teachers.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ningewance,_Patricia,_1999,_p._2-145">[144]</a> One of its goals is to promote standardization of Ottawa writing so that language learners are able to read and write in a consistent way. By comparison, <a href="Ojibwe_writing_systems#Folk_Spelling" title="Ojibwe writing systems">folk phonetic spelling</a> approaches to writing Ottawa based on less systematic adaptations of written English or French are more variable and idiosyncratic, and do not always make consistent use of alphabetic letters.<a href="#cite_note-NicholsWhiteiii-129">[128]</a> While the modern orthography is used in a number of prominent publications, its acceptance is not universal. Prominent Ottawa author <a href="Basil_H._Johnston" title="Basil H. Johnston">Basil Johnston</a> has explicitly rejected it, preferring to use a form of folk spelling in which the correspondences between sounds and letters are less systematic.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> Similarly, a lexicon representing Ottawa as spoken in Michigan and another based on Ottawa in Oklahoma, use English-based folk spellings distinct from that employed by Johnson.<a href="#cite_note-Dawes,_Charles,_1982-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a>

The Ottawa writing system is a minor adaptation of a very similar one used for other dialects of <a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a> in Ontario and the United States, and widely employed in reference materials and text collections.<a href="#cite_note-Nichols_Nyholm_Dict-149">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> Sometimes referred to as the <a href="Ojibwe_writing_systems#Double_vowel_system" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Double Vowel system</a><a href="#cite_note-Ningewance,_Patricia,_1999,_p._2-145">[144]</a> because it uses doubled vowel symbols to represent Ottawa long vowels that are paired with corresponding short vowels, it is an adaptation attributed to Charles Fiero<a href="#cite_note-NicholsWhiteiii-129">[128]</a> of the linguistically oriented system found in publications such as Leonard Bloomfield's Eastern Ojibwa.<a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958-135">[134]</a> Letters of the <a href="English_alphabet" title="English alphabet">English alphabet</a> substitute for specialized <a href="International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">phonetic symbols</a>, in conjunction with orthographic conventions unique to Ottawa. The system embodies two basic principles: (1) alphabetic letters from the English alphabet are used to write Ottawa, but with Ottawa sound values; (2) the system is <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> in nature, in that each letter or letter combination indicates its basic sound value, and does not reflect all the phonetic detail that occurs. Accurate pronunciation cannot be learned without consulting a fluent speaker.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a>

The Ottawa variant of this system uses the following consonant letters or <a href="Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a>: <blockquote>b, ch, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, sh, t, w, y, z, zh</blockquote>

The letters f, l, and r are found in loan words, such as telephonewayshin 'give me a call' and refrigeratoring 'in the refrigerator'.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> Loan words that have recently been borrowed from English are typically written in standard <a href="English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a>

The letter h is used for the <a href="Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> [ʔ], which is represented in the broader Ojibwe version with the apostrophe. In Ottawa the apostrophe is reserved for a separate function noted below.<a href="#cite_note-Nichols_Nyholm_Dict-149">[148]</a> In a few primarily expressive words, orthographic h has the phonetic value [h]: aa haaw 'OK'.<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a>

Vowels are represented as follows:<blockquote>Long ii, oo, aa, e; Short i, o, a</blockquote>

By convention the three long vowels that correspond to a short vowel are written double, while the single long vowel written as orthographic e that does not have a corresponding short vowel is not written doubled.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a>

The apostrophe ’  is used to distinguish primary (underlying) consonant clusters from secondary clusters that arise when the rule of syncope deletes a vowel between two consonants. For example, orthographic ng must be distinguished from n'g. The former has the phonetic value [ŋ] (arising from place of articulation <a href="Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a> of /n/ to the following velar consonant /ɡ/, which is then deleted in word-final position as in mnising [mnɪsɪŋ] 'at the island'), while the latter has the phonetic value [nɡ] as in san'goo [sanɡoː] 'black squirrel'.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes1985,_xlix-156">[155]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a> and <a href="Ojibwe_dialects" title="Ojibwe dialects">Ojibwe dialects</a></div>

In the general model of linguistic change, "a single ancestor language (a proto-language) develops dialects which in time through the accumulation of changes become distinct languages."<a href="#cite_note-Campbell2004,212-214-157">[156]</a> Continued changes in the descendant languages result in the development of dialects which again over time develop into distinct languages.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell2004,212-214-157">[156]</a> The Ojibwe language is a historical descendant of <a href="Proto-Algonquian_language" title="Proto-Algonquian language">Proto-Algonquian</a>, the reconstructed ancestor language of the Algonquian languages. Ojibwe has subsequently developed a series of dialects including Ottawa, which is one of the three dialects of Ojibwe that has innovated the most through its historical development, along with Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_pp._43–44-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_scholarship">History of scholarship</h2></div>

Explorer Samuel de Champlain was the first European to record an encounter with Ottawa speakers when he met a party of three hundred Ottawas in 1615 on the north shore of Georgian Bay.<a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> French <a href="Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a>, particularly members of the <a href="Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> and the <a href="R%C3%A9collets" class="mw-redirect" title="Récollets">Récollets</a> order, documented several dialects of Ojibwe in the 17th and 18th centuries, including unpublished manuscript Ottawa grammatical notes, word lists, and a dictionary.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a>

In the 19th century, Ottawa speaker <a href="Andrew_Blackbird" title="Andrew Blackbird">Andrew Blackbird</a> wrote a history of the Ottawa people that included a description of Ottawa grammatical features.<a href="#cite_note-Blackbird,_Andrew_J.,_1887-134">[133]</a> The first linguistically accurate work was <a href="Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield's</a> description of Ottawa as spoken at <a href="Walpole_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Walpole Island">Walpole Island</a>, Ontario.<a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958-135">[134]</a> The Odawa Language Project at the <a href="University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a>, led by <a href="Jonathan_Kaye_(linguist)" title="Jonathan Kaye (linguist)">Kaye</a> and Piggott, conducted field work in Ottawa communities on <a href="Manitoulin_Island" title="Manitoulin Island">Manitoulin Island</a> in the late 1960s and early 1970s, resulting in a series of reports on Ottawa linguistics.<a href="#cite_note-Kaye,_Jonathan,_Glyne_Piggott_and_Kensuke_Tokaichi,_eds.,_1971-161">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piggott,_Glyne_and_Jonathan_Kaye,_eds,_1973-162">[161]</a> Piggott also prepared a comprehensive description of Ottawa phonology.<a href="#cite_note-Piggott,_Glyne,_1980-163">[162]</a> Rhodes produced a study of Ottawa syntax,<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> a dictionary,<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985-130">[129]</a> and a series of articles on Ottawa grammar.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> Valentine has published a comprehensive descriptive grammar,<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001-21">[21]</a> a volume of texts including detailed analysis,<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1998-143">[142]</a> as well as a survey of Ojibwe dialects that includes extensive description and analysis of Ottawa dialect features.<a href="#cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994-16">[16]</a>

There has been one major anthropological/linguistic study of the <a href="Grand_Traverse_Band_of_Ottawa_and_Chippewa_Indians" title="Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians">Grand Traverse Band</a> of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians. <a href="Jane_Willets_Ettawageshik" title="Jane Willets Ettawageshik">Jane Willetts Ettawageshik</a> devoted approximately two years of study in the Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians community. <a href="Jane_Willets_Ettawageshik" title="Jane Willets Ettawageshik">Jane Willetts Ettawageshik</a> recorded <a href="Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a> stories speak of how the <a href="Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a> people related to their land, to their people, and various other means of communicating their values, outlooks and histories in and around Northern Michigan. These stories have been translated into a book, Ottawa Stories from the Springs, Anishinaabe dibaadjimowinan wodi gaa binjibaamigak wodi mookodjiwong e zhinikaadek,<a href="#cite_note-:0-166">[165]</a> by Howard Webkamigad.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ottawa_oral_literature_and_texts" title="Ottawa oral literature and texts">Ottawa oral literature and texts</a></div>

Traditional Ottawa stories fall into two general categories, <a href="Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs#Aadizookaan" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">aadsookaan</a> 'legend, sacred story'<a href="#cite_note-:1-167">[166]</a> and dbaajmowin 'narrative, story'.<a href="#cite_note-:2-168">[167]</a> Stories in the aasookaan category involve mythical beings such as the <a href="Trickster" title="Trickster">trickster</a> character <a href="Nanabozho" title="Nanabozho">Nenbozh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-NicholsBloomfield,_1991,_pp._18–23-170">[169]</a> Stories in the dbaajmowin category include traditional stories that do not necessarily involve mythical characters,<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> although the term is also used more generally to refer to any story not in the aasookaan category. Published Ottawa texts include a range of <a href="Genre" title="Genre">genres</a>, including historical narratives,<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> stories of conflict with other indigenous groups,<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> humorous stories,<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-NicholsBloomfield,_1991,_pp._18–23-170">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a>

Ottawa speaker Andrew Medler dictated the following text while working with linguist Leonard Bloomfield in a linguistic <a href="Field_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Field work">field methods</a> class at the 1939 <a href="Linguistic_Society_of_America#Linguistic_institutes" title="Linguistic Society of America">Linguistic Society of America Summer Institute</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> Medler grew up near <a href="Saginaw%2C_Michigan" title="Saginaw, Michigan">Saginaw</a>, Michigan but spent most of his life at Walpole Island.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> The texts that Medler dictated were originally published in a linguistically oriented transcription using phonetic symbols,<a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958-135">[134]</a> and have been republished in a revised edition that uses the modern orthography and includes detailed linguistic analyses of each text.<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a>

Love Medicine

Andrew Medler

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">(1) Ngoding kiwenziinh ngii-noondwaaba a-dbaajmod wshkiniigkwen gii-ndodmaagod iw wiikwebjigan.

<dl><dd>'Once I heard an old man tell of how a young woman asked him for love medicine.'</dd></dl>

(2) Wgii-msawenmaan niw wshkinwen.

<dl><dd>'She was in love with a young man.'</dd></dl>

(3) Mii dash niw kiwenziinyan gii-ndodmawaad iw wiikwebjigan, gye go wgii-dbahmawaan.

<dl><dd>'So then she asked that old man for the love medicine, and she paid him for it.'</dd></dl>

(4) Mii dash gii-aabjitood maaba wshkiniigkwe iw mshkiki gaa-giishpnadood.

<dl><dd>'Then this young woman used that medicine that she had bought.'</dd></dl>

(5) Mii dash maaba wshkinwe gaa-zhi-gchi-zaaghaad niw wshkiniigkwen.

<dl><dd>'Then this young man accordingly very much loved that young woman.'</dd></dl>

(6) Gye go mii gii-wiidgemaad, gye go mii wiiba gii-yaawaawaad binoojiinyan.

<dl><dd>'Then he married her; very soon they had children.'</dd></dl>

(7) Aapji go gii-zaaghidwag gye go gii-maajiishkaawag.

<dl><dd>'They loved each other and they fared very well.'</dd></dl></blockquote>Additionally, there has been a book release titled Ottawa Stories from the Springs, Anishinaabe dibaadjimowinan wodi gaa binjibaamigak wodi mookodjiwong e zhinikaadek<a href="#cite_note-:0-166">[165]</a> by Howard Webkamigad. This book translates recordings from the <a href="Grand_Traverse_Band_of_Ottawa_and_Chippewa_Indians" title="Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians">Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa</a> that were recorded by <a href="Jane_Willets_Ettawageshik" title="Jane Willets Ettawageshik">Jane Willetts Ettawageshik</a> between 1946–1949. It contains over 25 stories of various sorts including many stories of the two general categories, <a href="Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs#Aadizookaan" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">aadsookaan</a> 'legend, sacred story'<a href="#cite_note-:1-167">[166]</a> and dbaajmowin 'narrative, story'.<a href="#cite_note-:2-168">[167]</a>

This book is historically significant as the recordings by <a href="Jane_Willets_Ettawageshik" title="Jane Willets Ettawageshik">Jane Willetts Ettawageshik</a> were the first recordings of the Odawa dialect in Northern Michigan and have not been previously translated prior to the books published by Howard Wabkamigad. The original recordings are archived at the <a href="American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.

<ul><li><a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe language</a></li>

<li><a href="Ojibwe_dialects" title="Ojibwe dialects">Ojibwe dialects</a></li>

<li><a href="Ojibwe_writing_systems" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe writing systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-e25-1"><a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/otw">Ottawa dialect</a> at <a href="Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (25th ed., 2022) <a href="Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"></a>

</li>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/language-use/2017-2021-lang-tables.html">"Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2017-2021"</a>. Census.gov. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 6 June 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGovernment_of_Canada2022" class="citation web cs1">Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-08-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810021601">"Knowledge of languages by age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions"</a>. www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-12-24.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, p. 17

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Nichols, John and Earl Nyholm, 1995, p. 10

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Baraga, Frederic, 1878, p. 336 gives ⟨Otawamowin⟩.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Rayburn, Alan, 1997, p. 259

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> See Bright, William, 2004, p. 360 for other uses of "Ottawa" as a place name.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Feest, Johanna and Christian Feest, 1978, p. 785

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Goddard_DVM-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Goddard_DVM_10-0">^</a> Goddard, Ives, 1979, p. 95

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Hock, Hans, 1991, p. 381

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298_12-0">^</a> Mithun, Marian, 1999, p. 298

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Campbell, Lyle, 2004, p. 217

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298-299-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298-299_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mithun,_Marian,_1999,_p.298-299_14-1">b</a> Mithun, Marian, 1999, pp. 298–299

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Hockett, Charles F., 1958, pp. 323–326 develops a model of language complexes; he uses the term "L-complex"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994_16-2">c</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_pp._43–44-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_pp._43–44_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_pp._43–44_17-1">b</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, pp. 43–44

</li>

<li id="cite_note-RhodesTodd52-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RhodesTodd52_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RhodesTodd52_18-1">b</a> Rhodes, Richard and Evelyn Todd, 1981, p. 52

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> As in e.g. <a href="H.C._Wolfart" class="mw-redirect" title="H.C. Wolfart">Wolfart</a>, H. Christoph, 1989, p. 1

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Significant publications include Bloomfield, Leonard, 1958; Piggott, Glyne, 1980; Rhodes, Richard, 1985; Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994; Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001_21-3">d</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. x

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Linguistic and cultural affiliations of Canada Indian bands, 1980, p. 20

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Canada,_1980,_24-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_24_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_24_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_24_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_24_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_24_24-4">e</a> Linguistic and cultural affiliations of Canada Indian bands, 1980, p. 24

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Canada,_1980,_21-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_21_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_21_25-1">b</a> Linguistic and cultural affiliations of Canada Indian bands, 1980, p. 21

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120717170521/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06159.html">Mississauga (Mississagi River 8 Reserve)</a> Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Canada,_1980,_23-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_23_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_23_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada,_1980,_23_27-2">c</a> Linguistic and cultural affiliations of Canada Indian bands, 1980, p. 23

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06185.html">Serpent River First Nation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080510130734/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06185.html">Archived</a> 2008-05-10 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whitefishriver.ca/">Whitefish River First Nation</a> Whitefish River Community Web Site. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Linguistic and cultural affiliations of Canada Indian bands, 1980, p. 19

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sheshegwaning.org/">Sheshegwaning First Nation</a>. Sheshegwaning First Nation Community web site. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120716122029/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06179.html">Sucker Creek First Nation</a>. Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120716201025/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06177.html">Sheguiandah First Nation</a>. Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rhodes_Todd_OJIB_Map-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_Todd_OJIB_Map_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_Todd_OJIB_Map_34-1">b</a> Rhodes, Richard and Evelyn Todd, 1981, p. 54, Fig. 2

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 2

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._x–xi-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._x–xi_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._x–xi_36-1">b</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, pp. x–xi

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Feest, Johanna and Christian Feest, 1978, p. 779, Fig. 6

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Dawes,_Charles,_1982-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dawes,_Charles,_1982_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dawes,_Charles,_1982_38-1">b</a> Dawes, Charles, 1982

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Status of Indian languages in Oklahoma. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ahalenia.com/iws/status.html">Status of Indian Languages in Oklahoma.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100917050404/http://www.ahalenia.com/iws/status.html">Archived</a> 2010-09-17 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Intertribal Wordpath Society. Norman, Oklahoma. Retrieved April 6, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89189&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=705&Temporal=2006&Theme=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928">Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181225074451/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928%20&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=">Archived</a> 2018-12-25 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on March 31, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Gordon, Raymond, 2005. See online version of same: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=otw">Ethnologue entry for Ottawa</a>. Retrieved September 14, 2009

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1998, p. 2

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001,_p._1-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_2001,_p._1_43-0">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 1

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Feest,_J._1978,_p._772-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Feest,_J._1978,_p._772_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Feest,_J._1978,_p._772_44-1">b</a> Feest, Johanna and Christian Feest, 1978, p. 772

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Rogers, Edward, 1978, pp. 760, 764, 764, Fig. 3

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Clifton, James, 1978, p. 739

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985 p. xi

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rhodes1985,4-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes1985,4_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes1985,4_48-1">b</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1982, p. 4

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. li

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._xxxix–xliii-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._xxxix–xliii_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985,_pp._xxxix–xliii_50-1">b</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, pp. xxxix–xliii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1976a, p. 135

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> See e.g. Nichols, John, and Earl Nyholm, 1995, for the segmental inventories of Southwestern Ojibwe, and Todd, Evelyn, 1970 for Severn Ojibwe

</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> See Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 29–32 for a discussion of the relationship between sounds and orthography

</li>

<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 51–67

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 52–54, 57–59

</li>

<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 76–83

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 73–74

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._59-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._59_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._59_58-1">b</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 59–67

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 66–67, 71

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 50

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, pp. xlv, xlvii, liii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Nichols, John and Earl Nyholm, 1995, p. xxxvi

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 48–49

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985_pp-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985_pp_65-0">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, pp. xlix–l, l–li, xlvii,

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. xlvii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 74–81

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, pp. xvlvi, xlvii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 34–41

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. xlii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 54

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, pp. xxxix-xlii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 185–188

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_p._19-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_p._19_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_p._19_74-1">b</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 19

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine_NASAL_40-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine_NASAL_40_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine_NASAL_40_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine_NASAL_40_75-2">c</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 40

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Bloomfield, Leonard, 1958, p. 7

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Piggott,_Glyne,_1980,_pp._110-11-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Piggott,_Glyne,_1980,_pp._110-11_77-0">^</a> Piggott, Glyne, 1980, pp. 110-111; Piggott's transcription of words containing long nasal vowels differs from those of Rhodes, Bloomfield, and Valentine by allowing for an optional [ʔ] after the long nasal vowel in phonetic forms.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Nichols, John, 1980, p. 6

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. xxiv

</li>

<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Blackbird, Andrew J., 1887, p. 120

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, Ch. 3

</li>

<li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 113

</li>

<li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 114–121, 130–135

</li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 114–121

</li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 116

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 104–105

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._623-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._623_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph_2001,_pp._623_87-1">b</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 623–643

</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, Chapters 5–8; pp. 62–72

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 178

</li>

<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 759–782

</li>

<li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 759

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 830–837

</li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 837–856

</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 62–72

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 177–178

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 743–748

</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 185–190

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 190–193

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> See Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, Ch. 5 for an extensive survey.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, Chs. 4–8

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 318–335

</li>

<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 335, 515–522

</li>

<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 18–19

</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, pp. 427–428

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_p._430-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_p._430_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1994,_p._430_105-1">b</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, p. 430

</li>

<li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 63–64

</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 64

</li>

<li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 64–67, 82–83

</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, pp. 143–147

</li>

<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 916

</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 918

</li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 934–935

</li>

<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 951–955

</li>

<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 991–996

</li>

<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, pp. 975–991

</li>

<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, pp. 430–431

</li>

<li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, pp. 424, 428

</li>

<li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 18

</li>

<li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, p. 424

</li>

<li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1976a, pp. 150-151

</li>

<li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1994, pp. 430–434; other items listed, p. 431

</li>

<li id="cite_note-OMeara54-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OMeara54_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OMeara54_122-1">b</a> O'Meara, Frederick, 1854

</li>

<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Pilling, James, 1891, p. 381

</li>

<li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Hanzeli, Victor, 1961; see especially Chs. 5 and 6

</li>

<li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Goddard, Ives, 1996b, pp. 17, 20

</li>

<li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Pentland, David, 1996, pp. 261–262

</li>

<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> For general discussion see Walker, Willard, 1996, pp. 158, 173–176

</li>

<li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Rhodes, Richard and Evelyn Todd, 1981, pp. 62–65

</li>

<li id="cite_note-NicholsWhiteiii-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NicholsWhiteiii_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NicholsWhiteiii_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NicholsWhiteiii_129-2">c</a> Nichols, John and Lena White, 1987, p. iii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985_130-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes,_Richard,_1985_130-2">c</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985

</li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Ningewance, Patricia, 1999

</li>

<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Baraga, Frederic, 1832

</li>

<li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> O'Meara, Frederick, 1844

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Blackbird,_Andrew_J.,_1887-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blackbird,_Andrew_J.,_1887_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blackbird,_Andrew_J.,_1887_134-1">b</a> Blackbird, Andrew J., 1887, pp. 107-128

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958_135-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958_135-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloomfield,_Leonard,_1958_135-3">d</a> Bloomfield, Leonard, 1958

</li>

<li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Nichols, John and Leonard Bloomfield, 1991

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Corbiere-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Corbiere_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corbiere_137-1">b</a> Corbiere, Alan, 2003

</li>

<li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Pentland, David, 1996, p. 267

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Corbiere58-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Corbiere58_139-0">^</a> Corbiere, Alan, 2003, p. 58

</li>

<li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Corbiere, Alan, 2003, pp. 58, 65, 68, 70

</li>

<li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Walker, Willard, 1996, pp. 168-169

</li>

<li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Goddard, Ives, 1996, pp. 126–127

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1998-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1998_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Valentine,_J._Randolph,_1998_143-1">b</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1998

</li>

<li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Native Language Instructors' Program. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.lakeheadu.ca/?display=page&pageid=174">Native Language Instructors' Program, Lakehead University</a> Faculty of Education, Lakehead University. Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ningewance,_Patricia,_1999,_p._2-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ningewance,_Patricia,_1999,_p._2_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ningewance,_Patricia,_1999,_p._2_145-1">b</a> Ningewance, Patricia, 1999, p. 2

</li>

<li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Johnston, Basil, 2007, pp. vii-viii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Johnston, Basil, 1979

</li>

<li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Cappell, Constance, 2006, pp. 157-196, 232

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Nichols_Nyholm_Dict-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_Nyholm_Dict_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_Nyholm_Dict_149-1">b</a> Nichols, John and Earl Nyholm, 1995

</li>

<li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Kegg, Maude, 1991

</li>

<li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Nichols, John and Earl Nyholm, 1995, p. xxiii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, pp. xxxi, xxxv

</li>

<li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 90

</li>

<li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, xlvi

</li>

<li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 2001, p. 34

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rhodes1985,_xlix-156"><a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes1985,_xlix_156-0">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. xlix

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Campbell2004,212-214-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell2004,212-214_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell2004,212-214_157-1">b</a> Campbell, Lyle, 2004, pp. 211–212

</li>

<li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Fox, William, 1990, p. 457

</li>

<li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Hanzeli, Victor, 1961, pp. 237-238

</li>

<li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> See Hanzeli, Victor, 1969, pp. 122-124 for the text and a facsimile reproduction from two pages of a circa 1688 manuscript of Ottawa grammatical notes and vocabulary attributed to Louis André, a Jesuit.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Kaye,_Jonathan,_Glyne_Piggott_and_Kensuke_Tokaichi,_eds.,_1971-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Kaye,_Jonathan,_Glyne_Piggott_and_Kensuke_Tokaichi,_eds.,_1971_161-0">^</a> Kaye, Jonathan, Glyne Piggott and Kensuke Tokaichi, eds., 1971

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Piggott,_Glyne_and_Jonathan_Kaye,_eds,_1973-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Piggott,_Glyne_and_Jonathan_Kaye,_eds,_1973_162-0">^</a> Piggott, Glyne and Jonathan Kaye, eds, 1973

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Piggott,_Glyne,_1980-163"><a href="#cite_ref-Piggott,_Glyne,_1980_163-0">^</a> Piggott, Glyne, 1980

</li>

<li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1976

</li>

<li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> See Further Reading for articles by Rhodes on Ottawa grammar.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_166-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://msupress.org/9781609174224/ottawa-stories-from-the-springs">"Ottawa Stories from the Springs"</a>. Michigan State University. 13 August 2019. Retrieved 2022-04-10.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_167-1">b</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. 14

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_168-1">b</a> Rhodes, Richard, 1985, p. 103

</li>

<li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1988, pp. 197–215, 113–115; Piggott, Glyne, 1985, pp. 11–16; Piggott, Glyne, 1985a, pp. 13–16

</li>

<li id="cite_note-NicholsBloomfield,_1991,_pp._18–23-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NicholsBloomfield,_1991,_pp._18–23_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NicholsBloomfield,_1991,_pp._18–23_170-1">b</a> Nichols, John and Leonard Bloomfield, 1991, pp. 18–23

</li>

<li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Piggott, Glyne, 1985a, pp. 1–12

</li>

<li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Piggott, Glyne, 1985, pp. 1–10

</li>

<li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> McGregor, Gregor with C. F. Voegelin, 1988, pp. 114–118

</li>

<li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Fox, Francis and Nora Soney with Richard Rhodes, 1988

</li>

<li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Wilder, Julie, ed., 1999

</li>

<li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Bloomfield, Leonard, 1958, p. vii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Bloomfield, Leonard, 1958, p. viii

</li>

<li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Valentine, J. Randolph, 1998, pp. 57, 167, 239–240

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li>Baraga, Frederic. 1878. A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language, Explained in English. A New edition, by a missionary of the Oblates. Part I, English-Otchipwe; Part II, Otchipwe-English. Montréal: Beauchemin & Valois. Reprint (in one volume), Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1966, 1973.</li>

<li>Blackbird, Andrew J. 1887. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofottawac00blac">History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan: A grammar of their language, and personal and family history of the author</a>. Retrieved April 10, 2009. Ypsilanti, MI: The Ypsilantian Job Printing House. (Reprinted as: Complete both early and late history of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan [etc.]. Harbor Springs, MI. Babcock and Darling.)</li>

<li>Bloomfield, Leonard. 1958. Eastern Ojibwa: Grammatical sketch, texts and word list. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.</li>

<li>Bright, William, 2004. Native American Place Names of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8061-3598-4</bdi></li>

<li>Campbell, Lyle. 2004. Historical linguistics: An introduction. Second edition. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-53267-9</bdi></li>

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<li>Clifton, James. 1978. "Potawatomi." Bruce Trigger, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15. Northeast, pp. 725–742. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-16-004575-4</bdi></li>

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<li>Feest, Johanna, and Christian Feest. 1978. "Ottawa." Bruce Trigger, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15. Northeast, pp. 772–786. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-16-004575-4</bdi></li>

<li>Fox, William A. 1990. "The Odawa." Chris J. Ellis and Neal Ferris, eds., The archaeology of Southern Ontario to A.D. 1650, pp. 457–473. Occasional Publications of the London Chapter, Ontario Archaeological Society Inc., Publication Number 5. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-919350-13-5</bdi></li>

<li>Fox, Francis and Nora Soney with Richard Rhodes. 1988. "Chippewa-Ottawa texts." John Nichols, ed., An Ojibwe text anthology, pp. 33–68. London: The Centre for Teaching and Research of Canadian Native Languages, University of Western Ontario. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7714-1046-8</bdi></li>

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<li>Goddard, Ives. 1996b. "The description of the native languages of North America before Boas." Ives Goddard, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 17. Languages, pp. 17–42. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-16-048774-9</bdi></li>

<li><a href="Victor_Hanzeli" title="Victor Hanzeli">Hanzeli, Victor</a>. 1961. Early descriptions by French missionaries of Algonquian and Iroquoian languages: A study of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century practice in linguistics. PhD dissertation. Indiana University. Bloomington.</li>

<li>Hanzeli, Victor. 1969. Missionary linguistics in New France: A study of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century descriptions of American Indian languages. The Hague: Mouton.</li>

<li>Hock, Hans Heinrich. 1991. Principles of historical linguistics. Second edition. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-11-012962-0</bdi></li>

<li>Hockett, Charles F. 1958. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180819015158/http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/20411/1/46174.pdf">A course in modern linguistics</a>. New York: MacMillan.</li>

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<li>Kaye, Jonathan, Glyne Piggott and Kensuke Tokaichi, eds. 1971. Odawa language project. First Report. Toronto: University of Toronto Anthropology Series 9.</li>

<li>Kegg, Maude. 1991. Edited and transcribed by John D. Nichols. Portage Lake: Memories of an Ojibwe Childhood. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8166-2415-1</bdi></li>

<li>Linguistic and cultural affiliations of Canada Indian bands. 1980. Indian and Inuit Affairs Program. Research Branch: Corporate Policy. Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.</li>

<li>McGregor, Gregor with C. F. Voegelin. 1988. "Birch Island Texts." Edited by Leonard Bloomfield and John D. Nichols. John Nichols, ed., An Ojibwe text anthology, pp. 107–194. London: The Centre for Teaching and Research of Canadian Native Languages, University of Western Ontario. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7714-1046-8</bdi></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120717170521/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06159.html">Mississauga (Mississagi River 8 Reserve)</a> Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.</li>

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<li>Nichols, John and Earl Nyholm. 1995. A concise dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. St. Paul: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8166-2427-5</bdi></li>

<li>Nichols, John and Lena White. 1987. Nishnaabebii'gedaa: Exercises in writing for speakers of Central Ojibwa and Odawa. University of Manitoba: Readers and Studies Guides, Department of Native Studies. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0711-382X">0711-382X</a></li>

<li>Ningewance, Patricia. 1999. Naasaab izhi-anishinaabebii'igeng: Conference report. A conference to find a common Anishinaabemowin writing system. Toronto: Queen's Printer for Ontario. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7778-8695-2</bdi></li>

<li>O'Meara, Frederick. 1844. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.93567">Kaezhetabwayandungebun kuhya kaezhewaberepun owh anuhmeaud keahneshnahbabeèegahdag keahnekenootahtahbeung</a>. Retrieved April 10, 2009. Cobourgh [Ont.] : Printed at the Diocesan Press for the Church Society of the Diocese of Toronto, 1844.</li>

<li>O'Meara, Frederick. 1854. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biblechippewa00unknuoft">Ewh oowahweendahmahgawin owh tabanemenung Jesus Christ: keahnekuhnootuhbeegahdag anwamand egewh ahneshenahbag Ojibway anindjig: keenahkoonegawaud kuhya ketebahahmahgawaud egewh mahyahmahwejegajig Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ewede London anduhzhetahwaud</a>. [New Testament in Ojibwe] Retrieved April 10, 2009. Toronto: H. Rowsell.</li>

<li>Pentland, David. 1996. "An Ottawa letter to the Algonquin chiefs at Oka." Brown, Jennifer and <a href="Elizabeth_Vibert" title="Elizabeth Vibert">Elizabeth Vibert</a>, eds., Reading beyond words: Contexts for Native history, pp. 261–279. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-55111-070-9</bdi></li>

<li>Piggott, Glyne L. 1980. Aspects of Odawa morphophonemics. New York: Garland. (Published version of PhD dissertation, University of Toronto, 1974) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8240-4557-2</bdi></li>

<li>Piggott, Glyne L., ed. 1985. Three stories from the Odawa language project. Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics, Readers and Study Guides. Winnipeg: Department of Native Studies, University of Manitoba. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0711-382X">0711-382X</a></li>

<li>Piggott, Glyne L., ed. 1985a. Stories of Sam Osawamick from the Odawa language project. Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics, Readers and Study Guides. Winnipeg: Department of Native Studies, University of Manitoba. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0711-382X">0711-382X</a></li>

<li>Piggott, Glyne and Jonathan Kaye, eds. 1973. Odawa language project. Second report. Toronto: University of Toronto Linguistics Series 1.</li>

<li>Pilling, James Constantine. 1891. Bibliography of the Algonquian languages. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 13. Washington: Government Printing Office.</li>

<li>Rayburn, Alan. 1997. Place names of Ontario. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8020-0602-7</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard. 1976. The morphosyntax of the Central Ojibwa verb. PhD dissertation, University of Michigan.</li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard. 1976a. "A preliminary report on the dialects of Eastern Ojibwa–Odawa." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the seventh Algonquian conference, pp. 129–156. Ottawa: Carleton University.</li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard. 1982. "Algonquian trade languages." William Cowan, ed., Papers of the thirteenth Algonquian conference, pp. 1–10. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7709-0123-9</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1985. Eastern Ojibwa-Chippewa-Ottawa Dictionary. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-11-013749-6</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard and Evelyn Todd. 1981. "Subarctic Algonquian languages." June Helm, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 6. Subarctic, pp. 52–66. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-16-004578-9</bdi></li>

<li>Ritzenthaler, Robert. 1978. "Southwestern Chippewa." Bruce Trigger, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15. Northeast, pp. 743–759. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-16-004575-4</bdi></li>

<li>Rogers, Edward. 1978. "Southeastern Ojibwa." Bruce Trigger, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15. Northeast, pp. 760–771. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-16-004575-4</bdi></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080510130734/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06185.html">Serpent River First Nation</a> Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120716201025/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06177.html">Sheguiandah First Nation</a> Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sheshegwaning.org/">Sheshegwaning First Nation</a> Community web site. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120716122029/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/en/rn06179.html">Sucker Creek First Nation</a> Aboriginal Canada Portal: Aboriginal Communities: First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.</li>

<li>Todd, Evelyn. 1970. A grammar of the Ojibwa language: The Severn dialect. PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.</li>

<li>Valentine, J. Randolph. 1994. Ojibwe dialect relationships. PhD dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.</li>

<li>Valentine, J. Randolph. 1998. Weshki-bimaadzijig ji-noondmowaad. 'That the young might hear': The stories of Andrew Medler as recorded by Leonard Bloomfield. London, ON: The Centre for Teaching and Research of Canadian Native Languages, University of Western Ontario. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7714-2091-9</bdi></li>

<li>Valentine, J. Randolph. 2001. Nishnaabemwin Reference Grammar. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8020-4870-6</bdi></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89189&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=705&Temporal=2006&Theme=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928">Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181225074451/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928%20&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=">Archived</a> 2018-12-25 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 2006. Statistics Canada. Retrieved on March 31, 2009.</li>

<li>Walker, Willard. 1996. "Native writing systems." Ives Goddard, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 17. Languages, pp. 158–184. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-16-048774-9</bdi></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whitefishriver.ca/">Whitefish River First Nation</a> Community Web Site. Retrieved on March 27, 2009.</li>

<li>Wilder, Julie, ed. 1999. Wiigwaaskingaa / Land of birch trees: Ojibwe stories by Arthur J. McGregor. Ojibwe editor Mary E. Wemigwans. Hobbema, AB: Blue Moon Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-9685103-0-2</bdi></li>

<li>Wolfart, H. Christoph. 1989. "Lahontan's best-seller." Historiographia Linguistica 16: 1–24.</li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Cappel, Constance. 2007, The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at <a href="L'Arbre_Croche" title="L'Arbre Croche">L'Arbre Croche</a>, 1763: The History of a Native American People, Edwin Mellen Press.</li>

<li>Norris, Mary Jane. 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/1998003/article/4003-eng.pdf">Canada's Aboriginal languages</a>. Canadian Social Trends (Winter): 8–16</li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1979. "Some aspects of Ojibwa discourse." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 10th Algonquian Conference, pp. 102–117. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7709-0059-3</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1980. "On the semantics of the instrumental finals in Ojibwa." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 11th Algonquian Conference, pp. 183–197. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7709-0076-3</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1981. "On the Semantics of the Ojibwa Verbs of Breaking." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 12th Algonquian Conference, pp. 47–56. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7709-0116-6</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1982. "Algonquian Trade Languages." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 13th Algonquian Conference, pp. 1–10. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7709-0123-9</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1983. "Some Comments on Ojibwa Ethnobotany." W. Cowan, ed., Actes du 14e Congrès des Algonquinistes, pp. 307–320. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7709-0126-3</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1984. "Baseball, Hotdogs, Apple Pie, and Chevrolets." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 15th Algonquian Conference, pp. 373–388. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7709-0165-4</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1985. "Metaphor and Extension in Ojibwa." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 16th Algonquian Conference, pp. 161–169. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0831-5671">0831-5671</a></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1988. "Ojibwa Politeness and Social Structure." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 19th Algonquian Conference, pp. 165–174. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0831-5671">0831-5671</a></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1991. "On the Passive in Ojibwa." W. Cowan, ed., Papers of the 22nd Algonquian Conference, pp. 307–319. Ottawa: Carleton University. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0831-5671">0831-5671</a></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 1998. "The Syntax and Pragmatics of Ojibwe Mii." D. H. Pentland, ed., Papers of the 29th Algonquian Conference, pp. 286–294. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0831-5671">0831-5671</a></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard. 2002. "Multiple Assertions, Grammatical Constructions, Lexical Pragmatics, and the Eastern Ojibwe-Chippewa-Ottawa Dictionary." William Frawley, Kenneth C. Hill, & Pamela Munro, eds., Making Dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas, pp. 108–124. Berkeley: University of California Press. 108-124. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-22996-9</bdi></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard A. 2004. "Alexander Francis Chamberlain and the language of the Mississaga Indians of Skugog." H.C. Wolfart, ed., Papers of the 35th Algonquian Conference, pp. 363–372. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0831-5671">0831-5671</a></li>

<li>Rhodes, Richard. 2005. "Directional pre-verbs in Ojibwe and the registration of path." H.C. Wolfart, ed., Papers of the Thirty-sixth Algonquian Conference, pp. 371–382. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba. 371-382. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0831-5671">0831-5671</a></li>

<li>Toulouse, Isadore. 2008. Kidwenan: An Ojibwe language book. Third Edition. Southampton, ON: Ningwakwe Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-896832-96-8</bdi></li>

<li>Williams, Shirley I. 2002. Gdi-nweninaa: Our sound, our voice. Peterborough, ON: Neganigwane. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-9731442-1-1</bdi></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130814035809/http://www.amphilsoc.org/exhibit/natamaudio/ottawa">"Native American Audio Collections: Ottawa"</a>. <a href="American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/exhibit/natamaudio/ottawa">the original</a> on 2013-08-14. Retrieved 2013-05-20.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anishinaabemdaa.com/">Anishnaabemdaa</a>, produced by the <a href="Little_River_Band_of_Ottawa_Indians" title="Little River Band of Ottawa Indians">Little River Band of Ottawa Indians</a>, Anishinaabemowin Program</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120819144825/http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/rnl/lexicon.html">The revitalization of the Nishnaabemwin Language project</a> at <a href="Trent_University" title="Trent University">Trent University</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Ottawa/index.html">Portions of the Book of Common Prayer in Ottawa</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.language-archives.org/language/otw">OLAC resources in and about the Ottawa language</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.nishnaabemwin.atlas-ling.ca/">An online Nishnaabemwin Dictionary</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Languages_of_Oklahoma325" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Languages_of_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Oklahoma">Languages</a> of <a href="Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate extinct languages * indicates extinct language in Oklahoma but still spoken elsewhere</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Arapaho</a></li>

<li><a href="Cheyenne_language" title="Cheyenne language">Cheyenne</a></li>

<li><a href="Unami_language" title="Unami language">Delaware</a></li>

<li><a href="Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li>

<li><a href="Fox_language" title="Fox language">Mesquakie</a></li>

<li><a href="Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Ottawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Shawnee_language" title="Shawnee language">Shawnee</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Caddo_language" title="Caddo language">Caddo</a></li>

<li><a href="Kitsai_language" title="Kitsai language">Kitsai</a></li>

<li><a href="Pawnee_language" title="Pawnee language">Pawnee</a></li>

<li><a href="Wichita_language" title="Wichita language">Wichita</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cayuga_language" title="Cayuga language">Cayuga</a>*</li>

<li><a href="Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li>

<li><a href="Seneca_language" title="Seneca language">Seneca</a></li>

<li><a href="Wyandot_language" title="Wyandot language">Wyandot</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alabama_language" title="Alabama language">Alabama</a>*</li>

<li><a href="Chickasaw_language" title="Chickasaw language">Chickasaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Choctaw_language" title="Choctaw language">Choctaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikasuki_language" title="Mikasuki language">Hitchiti-Mikasuki</a></li>

<li><a href="Koasati_language" title="Koasati language">Koasati</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscogee_language" title="Muscogee language">Muscogee</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache</a></li>

<li><a href="Plains_Apache_language" title="Plains Apache language">Plains Apache</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chiwere_language" title="Chiwere language">Chiwere</a></li>

<li><a href="Kansa_language" title="Kansa language">Kansa</a></li>

<li><a href="Osage_language" title="Osage language">Osage</a></li>

<li><a href="Omaha-Ponca_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Omaha-Ponca language">Ponca</a></li>

<li><a href="Quapaw_language" title="Quapaw language">Quapaw</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Comanche_language" title="Comanche language">Comanche</a></li>

<li><a href="Kiowa_language" title="Kiowa language">Kiowa</a></li>

<li><a href="Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Sign Talk</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_English" title="American English">English</a></li>

<li><a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Canada269" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages_of_Canada269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Languages of Canada</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Canadian_English" title="Canadian English">English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Black_Canadians#Language" title="Black Canadians">Black</a>

<ul><li><a href="African-American_English#African_Nova_Scotian_English" title="African-American English">Afro-Nova Scotian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pacific_Northwest_English" title="Pacific Northwest English">Cascadian</a></li>

<li><a href="Franglais" title="Franglais">Franglais</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chiac" title="Chiac">Chiac</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aboriginal_English_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal English in Canada">Indigenous</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunenburg_English" title="Lunenburg English">Lunenburg</a></li>

<li><a href="Atlantic_Canadian_English" title="Atlantic Canadian English">Maritime</a></li>

<li><a href="Newfoundland_English" title="Newfoundland English">Newfoundland</a></li>

<li><a href="Ottawa_Valley_Twang" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa Valley Twang">Ottawa Valley</a></li>

<li><a href="Quebec_English" title="Quebec English">Québec</a></li>

<li><a href="Toronto_slang" title="Toronto slang">Toronto</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="French_language_in_Canada" title="French language in Canada">French</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acadian_French" title="Acadian French">Acadian</a></li>

<li><a href="Brayon" title="Brayon">Brayon</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaouin" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaouin">Chaouin</a></li>

<li><a href="Franglais" title="Franglais">Franglais</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chiac" title="Chiac">Chiac</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Joual" title="Joual">Joual</a></li>

<li><a href="Magoua_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Magoua dialect">Magoua</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%A9tis_French" title="Métis French">Métis</a></li>

<li><a href="Newfoundland_French" title="Newfoundland French">Newfoundland</a></li>

<li><a href="Franco-Ontarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Ontarian">Ontarois</a></li>

<li><a href="Qu%C3%A9bec_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Québec French">Québec</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki</a></li>

<li><a href="Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a></li>

<li><a href="Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li>

<li><a href="Malecite-Passamaquoddy_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malecite-Passamaquoddy language">Malecite-Passamaquoddy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaq_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaq language">Miꞌkmaq</a></li>

<li><a href="Munsee_language" title="Munsee language">Munsee</a></li>

<li><a href="Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a></li>

<li><a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a></li>

<li><a href="Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Inuinnaqtun" title="Inuinnaqtun">Inuinnaqtun</a></li>

<li><a href="Inuktitut" title="Inuktitut">Inuktitut</a></li>

<li><a href="Inupiat_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inupiat language">Inupiaq</a></li>

<li><a href="Inuvialuktun" title="Inuvialuktun">Inuvialuktun</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cayuga_language" title="Cayuga language">Cayuga</a></li>

<li><a href="Mohawk_language" title="Mohawk language">Mohawk</a></li>

<li><a href="Oneida_language" title="Oneida language">Oneida</a></li>

<li><a href="Onondaga_language" title="Onondaga language">Onondaga</a></li>

<li><a href="Seneca_language" title="Seneca language">Seneca</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuscarora_language" title="Tuscarora language">Tuscarora</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li>

<li><a href="Wyandot_language" title="Wyandot language">Wyandot</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Babine-Witsuwit%CA%BCen_language" title="Babine-Witsuwitʼen language">Babine-Witsuwitʼen</a></li>

<li><a href="Carrier_language" title="Carrier language">Carrier</a></li>

<li><a href="Tsilhqot%CA%BCin_language" title="Tsilhqotʼin language">Chilcotin</a></li>

<li><a href="Chipewyan_language" title="Chipewyan language">Chipewyan</a></li>

<li><a href="Dogrib_language" title="Dogrib language">Dogrib</a></li>

<li><a href="Gwich%CA%BCin_language" title="Gwichʼin language">Gwichʼin</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaska_language" title="Kaska language">Kaska</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicola_language" title="Nicola language">Nicola</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li>

<li><a href="Sekani_language" title="Sekani language">Sekani</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a></li>

<li><a href="Tagish_language" title="Tagish language">Tagish</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li>

<li><a href="Tahltan_language" title="Tahltan language">Tahltan</a></li>

<li><a href="Tlingit_language" title="Tlingit language">Tlingit</a></li>

<li><a href="Tsetsaut_language" title="Tsetsaut language">Tsetsaut</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li>

<li><a href="Tsuut%CA%BCina_language" title="Tsuutʼina language">Tsuutʼina</a></li>

<li><a href="Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Tutchone</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bella_Coola_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bella Coola language">Bella Coola</a></li>

<li><a href="Comox_language" title="Comox language">Comox</a></li>

<li><a href="Halkomelem" title="Halkomelem">Halkomelem</a></li>

<li><a href="Lillooet_language" title="Lillooet language">Lillooet</a></li>

<li><a href="Okanagan_language" title="Okanagan language">Okanagan</a></li>

<li><a href="Pentlatch_language" title="Pentlatch language">Pentlatch</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li>

<li><a href="Saanich_dialect" title="Saanich dialect">Saanich</a></li>

<li><a href="Sh%C3%ADsh%C3%A1lh_language" title="Shíshálh language">Shíshálh</a></li>

<li><a href="Shuswap_language" title="Shuswap language">Shuswap</a></li>

<li><a href="Squamish_language" title="Squamish language">Squamish</a></li>

<li><a href="Thompson_language" title="Thompson language">Thompson</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stoney_language" title="Stoney language">Stoney</a></li>

<li><a href="Sioux_language" title="Sioux language">Sioux</a></li>

<li><a href="Assiniboine_language" title="Assiniboine language">Assiniboine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coast_Tsimshian_dialect" title="Coast Tsimshian dialect">Coast</a></li>

<li><a href="Gitxsan_language" title="Gitxsan language">Gitxsan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nisga'a_language" title="Nisga'a language">Nisga'a</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Tsimshian_dialect" title="Southern Tsimshian dialect">Southern</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ditidaht_language" title="Ditidaht language">Ditidaht</a></li>

<li><a href="Haisla_language" title="Haisla language">Haisla</a></li>

<li><a href="Heiltsuk%E2%80%93Oowekyala_language" title="Heiltsuk–Oowekyala language">Heiltsuk-Oowekyala</a></li>

<li><a href="Kwak%CA%BCwala" title="Kwakʼwala">Kwakʼwala</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuu-chah-nulth_language" title="Nuu-chah-nulth language">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beothuk_language" title="Beothuk language">Beothuk</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li>

<li><a href="Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li>

<li><a href="Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pidgins, creoles and mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algonquian%E2%80%93Basque_pidgin" title="Algonquian–Basque pidgin">Algonquian–Basque pidgin</a></li>

<li><a href="Broken_Slavey" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken Slavey">Broken Slavey</a></li>

<li><a href="Bungi_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Bungi Creole">Bungee</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinook_Jargon" title="Chinook Jargon">Chinook Jargon</a></li>

<li><a href="Labrador_Inuit_Pidgin_French" title="Labrador Inuit Pidgin French">Labrador Inuit Pidgin French</a></li>

<li><a href="Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minority languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Canadian_Gaelic" title="Canadian Gaelic">Canadian Gaelic</a></li>

<li><a href="Irish_language_in_Newfoundland" title="Irish language in Newfoundland">Newfoundland Irish</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li>

<li><a href="Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li>

<li><a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania</a></li>

<li><a href="Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite</a></li>

<li><a href="Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Ukrainian" title="Canadian Ukrainian">Ukrainian</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Doukhobor_Russian" title="Doukhobor Russian">Doukhobor</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li>

<li><a href="Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a></li>

<li><a href="Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li>

<li><a href="Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Protactile" title="Protactile">Protactile</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li>Coast Salish Sign Language</li>

<li><a href="Oneida_Sign_Language" title="Oneida Sign Language">Oneida Sign Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Plateau_Sign_Language" title="Plateau Sign Language">Plateau Sign Language</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Inuit_Sign_Language" title="Inuit Sign Language">Inuit Sign Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Maritime_Sign_Language" title="Maritime Sign Language">Maritime Sign Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Quebec_Sign_Language" title="Quebec Sign Language">Quebec Sign Language</a></li>

<li>Sawmill Sign Language</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="Bibliography_of_Canada#Canadian_style_guides" title="Bibliography of Canada">Canadian style guides</a> - <a href="List_of_Canadian_English_dictionaries" title="List of Canadian English dictionaries">Canadian dictionaries </a>‎</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anishinaabe_culture235" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Anishinaabe_culture235" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a> <a href="Culture" title="Culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Family" title="Family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anishinaabe_clan_system" title="Anishinaabe clan system">Clan system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a>, <a href="Myth" title="Myth">myth and stories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aayaase" title="Aayaase">Aayaase</a></li>

<li><a href="Baykok" title="Baykok">Baykok</a></li>

<li><a href="Deer_Woman" title="Deer Woman">Deer Woman</a></li>

<li><a href="Dreamcatcher" title="Dreamcatcher">Dreamcatcher</a></li>

<li><a href="Drumkeeper" title="Drumkeeper">Drumkeeper</a></li>

<li><a href="Elbow_witch" title="Elbow witch">Elbow witch</a></li>

<li><a href="Gitche_Manitou" title="Gitche Manitou">Gitche Manitou</a></li>

<li><a href="Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Grand Medicine Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Jiibayaabooz" title="Jiibayaabooz">Jiibayaabooz</a></li>

<li><a href="Jingle_dress" title="Jingle dress">Jingle dress</a></li>

<li><a href="Little_people_(mythology)" title="Little people (mythology)">Little people</a></li>

<li><a href="Manitou" title="Manitou">Manitou</a></li>

<li><a href="Medicine_wheel" title="Medicine wheel">Medicine wheel</a></li>

<li><a href="Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Mishi-ginebig ("great snake")</a></li>

<li><a href="Mudjekeewis" title="Mudjekeewis">Mudjekeewis</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanabozho" title="Nanabozho">Nanabozho</a></li>

<li><a href="Nokomis" title="Nokomis">Nokomis</a></li>

<li><a href="Powwow" title="Powwow">Powwow</a></li>

<li><a href="Pukwudgie" title="Pukwudgie">Pukwudgie</a></li>

<li><a href="Seven_fires_prophecy" title="Seven fires prophecy">Seven fires prophecy</a></li>

<li><a href="Shingebis" title="Shingebis">Shingebis</a></li>

<li><a href="Teachings_of_the_Seven_Grandfathers" title="Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers">Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers</a></li>

<li><a href="Turtle_Island_(Indigenous_North_American_folklore)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turtle Island (Indigenous North American folklore)">Turtle Island</a></li>

<li><a href="Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Traditional beliefs</a></li>

<li><a href="Underwater_panther" title="Underwater panther">Underwater panther</a></li>

<li><a href="Wendigo" title="Wendigo">Wendigo</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiigwaasabak" title="Wiigwaasabak">Birch bark scrolls</a></li>

<li><a href="Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwe</a></li>

<li><a href="Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Birchbark_biting" title="Birchbark biting">Birchbark biting</a></li>

<li><a href="Quillwork" title="Quillwork">Quillwork</a></li>

<li><a href="Ribbon_work" title="Ribbon work">Ribbon work</a></li>

<li><a href="Wampum" title="Wampum">Wampum</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Education" title="Education">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Residential</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">U.S. residential schools</a></li>

<li><a href="Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Canadian residential schools</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary</a>/<a href="Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bug-O-Nay-Ge-Shig_School" title="Bug-O-Nay-Ge-Shig School">Bug-O-Nay-Ge-Shig School</a></li>

<li><a href="Hannahville_Indian_School" title="Hannahville Indian School">Hannahville Indian School</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_K._Lumsden_Bahweting_Anishnabe_School" title="Joseph K. Lumsden Bahweting Anishnabe School">Joseph K. Lumsden Bahweting Anishnabe School</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anishinabek_Educational_Institute" title="Anishinabek Educational Institute">Anishinabek Educational Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="Bay_Mills_Community_College" title="Bay Mills Community College">Bay Mills Community College</a></li>

<li><a href="Keweenaw_Bay_Ojibwa_Community_College" title="Keweenaw Bay Ojibwa Community College">Keweenaw Bay Ojibwa Community College</a></li>

<li><a href="Saginaw_Chippewa_Tribal_College" title="Saginaw Chippewa Tribal College">Saginaw Chippewa Tribal College</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Indigenous_architecture" title="Indigenous architecture">Housing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wigwam" title="Wigwam">Wigwam</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

</div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-15" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Ottawa_dialect&oldid=1300704707">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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